Abstract:
Nonpoint source pollution has become a significant environmental and water quality problem
worldwide. It is threatening ecosystem services. In developing countries, managing the increasing
pollution load to the water bodies is problematic due to the lack of studies on the fate and transport
of nutrients and pesticides in watersheds with a monsoon climate and unique geology. This Ph.D.
research aims to fill the knowledge gap and investigate the fate and transport of water contaminants
under varying hydrogeologic conditions. The study was conducted in two contrasting rural
watersheds of the 57 km² Dangishta and the 9 km² Robit-Bata located in the humid and sub-humid
volcanic Ethiopian highlands respectively. For 2 years study period, stream discharge, sediment,
and phosphorus (total, dissolved, and bioavailable particulate) concentrations were determined at
watershed outlet. In the sloping aquifer, groundwater water table, nitrate, and other hydrochemical
constituents were monitored in 35 hand-dug wells in Robit Bata and 32 in Dangishta. In Robit
Bata, pesticides were analyzed in 8 wells and in 3 storm events and baseflow in the stream.
The hydrologic characteristics of the two watersheds are contrasting. Stream hydrograph
separation in Dangishta indicated that subsurface flow accounted for 90% of the total flow. Due
to volcanic dikes in the valley bottom, subsurface flow is blocked in this area and surfaces as
spring, forming a seasonal floodplain. In Robit Bata, subsurface flow contribution is less than in
Dangishta. The volcanic dikes are absent and subsurface flow direct joins the mainstream. As a
result, river banks slump. The groundwater table is quicker to rise and fall in Robit Bata because
the aquifer is steep with a slope of 8% compared to 5% in Dangishta.
Moreover, the Thornthwaite Mather water balance model was evaluated to predict baseflow and
groundwater table height for aquifers. The predicted groundwater table height fitted well with the
observed for both watersheds. In Robit Bata, baseflow was predicted satisfactorily. In Dangishta,
the baseflow prediction was poor but improved to excellent by considering the evapotranspiration
from the saturated areas. Floodplain covers 30% of the watershed and remains saturated for a long
time in a dry period (October to January). Evaporated water from this area is part of baseflow that
discharged to the floodplain as spring. In this period, atual evapotranspiration was assumed to
equal reference (ETO). Subtracting this value from the predicted baseflow in those months resulted
in the best fit and increased the Nash Sutcliff efficiencies to 0.90.
The hydrology affected the soil and phosphorus (P) transport. On average, sediment concentration
in the rain monsoon phase in Robit Bata was 10.5 g L⁻¹, 11 times that in Dangishta which indicates
the contribution of sediments from slipping banks and gullies. The total, P concentration was 2 mg
L⁻¹ which was four times that in Dangishta. Bioavailable particulate P (BAPP) concentration in
Robit Bata was only twice the concentration in the runoff in Dangishta. The low P content of the
subsoil slipping in Robit Bata moderated BAPP at the outlet. The BAPP was related to available
P in the top 10 cm soil layer. Average dissolved P concentrations for both watersheds were around
0.1 mg L⁻¹. Low-range DP reflects less P-enriched soil by the applied fertilizer.
v
In groundwater, annual average nitrate concentrations were between 4 and 5 mg N-NO3 L⁻¹ in both
watersheds, but the monthly high and low concentrations occurred at different times. In Robit
Bata, peak concentrations were observed in the month after fertilizer applications and then
decreased rapidly due to transport out of the watershed. In Dangishta, volcanic dikes blocked the
subsurface flow, and nitrate remained near or above 10 mg N-NO3 L⁻¹ for several months after
fertilizers were applied. The concentrations decreased slowly due to denitrification. Regression
analysis of processes that control nitrate indicated that the denitrification process contribute up to
50% in controlling nitrate fate in Dangishta while less than 10% in Robit Bata.
Pesticide concentrations recorded different for detected active ingredients.The strongly adsorbed
but less degraded pesticides such as chlorpyrifos and endosulfan were found in nearly all ground
and surface water samples. Maximum concentrations in surface water were 8 µg L⁻¹ for
chlorpyrifos and 3 µg L⁻¹ endosulfan. These concentrations is at level chronically harmfull to fish
in surface water. The weakly adsorbed and fast degrading dimethoate and profenofos pesticides
were detected only in the rain phase in lower concentrations during spraying to crops. Non equilibrium adsorption and preferential flow were likely main transport mode of pesticides to
groundwater. Based on the equilibrium convective dispersive transport theory, estimated annual
distance displaced down in the soil was less than 1m for all pesticides.
Our research concludes that the hydrogeologic condition affected soil loss, nutrient (N and P), and
pesticide fate and transport. Greater sediment and particulate P concentrations in runoff were
related to banks slipping and gullies, thus, implementing common practices such as strengthening
river banks and stabilizing gully reduce concentrations. However, the portion of P which is
bioavailable particulate might not be improved by implementing those practices. In watershed with
highly slopping aquifer without a volcanic dike, nitrate faster flash out from the groundwater. This
is undesirable in the downstream surface water ecosystem. In the other watershed, nitrate was lost
slowly. This is important in keeping nitrogen in the upland but harmful to humans if it is above 10
mg N-NO3 L⁻¹ in drinking water. Some persistent pesticides in surface water were found at levels
chronically harmful to aquatic life. Detection of this pesticides in groundwater was surprisingly
high as those pesticides are mobile in non-equilibrium adsorption and preferential transport in
volcanic highlands. Thus, ending using long-lasting pesticides in this area is advisable.
Key words: Nutrient, Pesticides, Sediment, Hydrogeology, Volcanic Highlands, Sub-Saharan
Africa